NTA UGC NET Education | Daily Practice Quiz| Part-22
1. Which of the following subordinate laws of learning
developed by Thorndike is related to classical conditioning of Pavlov ?
(1) Multiple response
(2) Prepotency of elements
(3) Associative shifting
(4) Response by analogy
ANSWER-3
Associative Shifting, Law Of: This is one of E.L.
Thorndike's minor subsidiary laws to his law of effect that is similar to Ivan
Pavlov's principle of stimulus association and also bears some resemblance to
the conditioning principle of generalization. The law of associative shifting
states that when two stimuli are present and one elicits a response, the other
takes on the ability to elicit the same response. This law became a central
axiom to E.R. Guthrie's contiguity learning theory. Thorndike considered the
general aspects of conditioning to be akin to associative shifting where the
occurrence of a "trial-and-error" process may not be necessary. An
example of associative shifting is the learning by a child to come to you when
you call her name using different variations (e.g., differences in tone,
pronunciation, intensity, inflection, etc.) of the name (and you subsequently
hug the child). According to Thorn dike, the ancillary concepts of
belongingness and satisfaction operate in associative shifting, but other
scientists regarded the time relations between the stimulus-response event to
be solely adequate for establishing conditioned responses.
2.In which of the following operant conditioning
procedures the training arrangement insists the presence of a cue and making of
a response to get negatively reinforced ?
(1) Escape training
(2) Punishment training
(3) Omission training
(4) Active avoidance training
ANSWER-4
The concept of reinforcement, positive or negative,
in operant conditioning is central both to its theory and practice. Positive
reinforcement signifies continued reward for the proper performance of a
required act. Negative reinforcement describes a paradigm in which the subject
is required to learn to perform, or in certain instances, not to perform a
certain act in order to avoid pain or discomfort. Thus negative reinforcement
paradigms fall into two categories: active avoidance and passive avoidance. In
active avoidance, the subject must learn to perform a specific act in order to
avoid pain or discomfort. In passive avoidance, the subject must learn to
abstain from a certain activity if he is to avoid pain or discomfort. Passive
avoidance is also the mechanism through which extinction of a given operant
response occurs, i.e., cessation of a response when responding is no longer
rewarded.
3.Brainstorming procedures are helpful specially for which
category of children ?
(1) Gifted children
(2) Backward children
(3) Creative children
(4) Mentally retarded children
ANSWER-3
Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a group creativity
technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a
problem. In 1953 the method was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in a book
called Applied Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their
creative output with brainstorming.
4. Which concept of intelligence addresses the problem of
meaning and value ?
(1) Academic Intelligence (IQ)
(2) Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
(3) Spiritual Intelligence (SQ)
(4) Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
ANSWER-3
Spiritual intelligence: Zohar and Marshall suggest
the existence of a third type of intelligence (human and emotional intelligence
being the other two), known as spiritual intelligence (SQ), which is essential
for leadership success. They define spiritual intelligence as: -
The intelligence with which we address and solve
problems of meaning and value, the intelligence with which we can place our
actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context, the
intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action or one
life-path is more meaningful than another. SQ is the necessary foundation for
the effective functioning of both IQ and EQ. It is our ultimate intelligence..
5. Peer group membership has high educational
implications during
(1) Childhood
(2) Later childhood
(3) Adolescence
(4) Adulthood
ANSWER-3
Peer group: Group of individuals usually are known
to each other and of the same age, sharing similar social experience, values,
etc. Peer group relations are of crucial importance to the developing child,
especially during adolescence when peer group standards and expectations begins
to challenge those of the family. The peer group may establish ways of dress
language and behaviour that set it apart from other groups and may be a form of
adolescent rebellion against parents and family.
6.According to Hull, which one of the following will be
called a dependent variable ?
(1) Habit strength
(2) Drive
(3) Resistance to Extinction
(4) Excitatory reaction potential
ANSWER-3
In 1943, Hull's theory of simple behaviour took as
the four main dependent variables response frequency, response amplitude,
response latency, and resistance to extinction. These were regarded by Hull as four alternative and more or less
equivalent ways of assessing the excitatory potential at any moment.
7.Which of the following terms is the equivalent of
transfer in learning experiments ?
(1) Stimulus discrimination
(2) Extinction of response
(3) Reinforcing stimulus
(4) Stimulus or response generalization
ANSWER-4
Pavlov
presented several principles of classical conditioning that are
relevant to the design of behavioural treatment programmes. These include
stimulus generalization, discrimination, and extinction.
Stimulus generalization refers to the process by
which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to
the original conditioned stimulus. Stimulus generalization often explains the
transfer of a response from one situation to another. Pavlov found that once a
dog learned to salivate to a particular tone, it would also salivate to similar
tones. As the tone becomes less similar to the original, the dog salivates
less. This event demonstrates two facts about generalization. First, once
conditioning to a stimulus occurs, its effectiveness is not restricted to that
stimulus. Second, as a stimulus becomes less similar to the one originally
used, its ability to produce a response decreases accordingly. The process of
stimulus generalization can also be seen in the way a first-grade youngster,
terrified by a stern teacher, transfers that fear or anxiety to other features
about school: teachers, books, or the school building itself.
Discrimination refers to the process by which one
learns not to respond to similar stimuli in the same way. Generalization
between two stimuli can be abolished if the response to one is reinforced while
the response to the other is extinguished. For example, if a dog's food is
always followed by a particular tone, but not similar sounding tones, the dog
will gradually stop salivating to similar sounding tones. Again, we can draw
important applied implications. Children might have difficulty learning to read
if they cannot tell the difference between circles and curved lines, or
horizontal from vertical lines. They then could not (or at least not consistently)
discriminate the letters v from u or b from d, which could lead to reading
problems. Similar discrimination challenges exist for young learners confronted
with pairs of numbers such as 21 and 12, or 25 and 52. Learning to make
discriminations of form is a critical component of successful learning.
Extinction
refers to the gradual reduction of frequency or intensity of a learned
response. In his experiments, Pavlov found that by presenting the sound of the
metronome alone, eventually he could eliminate the conditioned response. In
other words, if over time there is no food accompanying the metronome, the dog
will stop salivating in the presence of the metronome only. For example, in a
school setting a teacher may ignore students who do not raise their hands
before speaking. Over time, the students will decrease the number of times they
speak without raising their hands.
8.Which of the following types in Gagne’s hierarchy of
learning exemplifies hypothesis making and hypothesis testing ?
(1) Sign learning (Type 1)
(2) Stimulus response learning (Type III)
(3) Rule learning (Type VII)
(4) Problem solving learning (Type VIII)
ANSWER-4
Gagne proposed a list of eight hierarchically
related types of learning, each building on the previous one in the following
way.
1. Signal learning: as described earlier as
'classical conditioning'
2.
Stimulus-response (S-R) learning: 'operant conditioning
3. Chaining: a sequence of two or more learned
(S-R) connections
4. Verbal association: the learning of verbal
chains, as in a constructed sentence
5. Discrimination learning: making appropriate
different responses to slightly different stimuli - involves handling
Interference
6. Concept
learning: learning a common response to a set of different stimuli possessing
common characteristics - involves abstraction
7. Rule learning: chaining two or more concepts
8. Problem-solving: involves re-combining old rules
into new ones often inhibited by 'preconceived
ideas'.
9.In which of the operant conditioning procedure the
positive reinforcement is made contingent on the making of a response in the
presence of a cue ?
(1) Reward training
(2) Omission training
(3) Discrimination training
(4) Discriminated omission training
ANSWER-3
Discrimination training and fading are concerned
primarily with the way the antecedents of behaviour come to influence when and
where behaviour occurs. Discrimination training involves reinforcing a response
in the presence of a particular stimulus and extinguishing the same response in
the absence of that stimulus. The effect of discrimination training is the
occurrence of the response in the presence of the stimulus and the
nonoccurrence of the response in the absence of the stimulus. This outcome is
called stimulus control. Controlling stimuli is said to set the occasion for
responses. They do not elicit responses. The ringing of the telephone is a
familiar example of a controlling stimulus. Answering the phone when it is
ringing is reinforced by the opportunity to talk with the caller; answering the
phone when it is not ringing has no such consequence. Thus, people typically
answer the phone only when it is ringing. However, the ringing of the telephone
does not elicit an "irresistible urge” to answer it. Whether you answer
your phone when it rings is influenced by a range of other variables, such as
what you are doing and with whom you are doing it.
Discrimination training differs from differential
reinforcement in the sense that in their most basic forms, discrimination
training is concerned with one response that is to be emitted in the presence
of a stimulus and not emitted in its absence, whereas differential
reinforcement is concerned with increasing the emission of one response and
decreasing the emission of a second response independent of the stimuli
present. However. the two are combined in most applications For example,
learning to say “” when presented with the stimulus "b" and learning
to say "d" when presented with the stimulus “d” involves differential
reinforcement to increase the emission of each letter response and
discrimination training to ensure each response is controlled by the
appropriate
letter. The stimuli of concern in most applications
of discrimination training are also more complex than the ringing of the
telephone and the letters of the alphabet.
10. Who advanced the concept of creative self' as the
most essential aspect of one's personality ?
(1) Allport
(2) Adler
(3) Freud
(4) Jung
ANSWER-2
Adler believed that people are basically motivated
by an inferiority complex. In some people feelings of inferiority may be based
on physical problems and the need to compensate for them. Adler believed,
however, that all of us encounter some feelings of inferiority because of our
small size as children and that these feelings give rise to a drive for
superiority. For instance, the English poet Lord Byron, who had a crippled leg,
became a champion swimmer. As a child Adler was crippled by rickets and suffered
from pneumonia, and it may be that his theory developed in part from his own
childhood striving to overcome repeated bouts of illness.
Adler believed that self-awareness plays a major
role in the formation of personality. He spoke of a creative self, a self-aware
aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the
individual's potential. Because each person's potential is unique, Adler's
views have been termed as individual
psychology.
11. “Defence Mechanisms' are used by an individual
(1) to solve personal problems
(2) to avoid unpleasant situations
(3) to promote adjustment process
(4) to counter the hostility of others
ANSWER-3
It is not
always possible to achieve all that we desire
in life. There are many situations when we fail in our attempts and get
frustrated. Our failures and frustrations may bring injury to our ego and cause
anxiety and feelings of inferiority. In such moments of frustration most of us
do not like to face the reality by accepting our shortcomings and failures but
tend to resort to certain mechanisms for defending our inadequacies or
anxieties. These mechanisms or devices are called mental mechanisms, defence
mechanisms, or adjustment mechanisms. These have been defined as follows: Page:
When psychological equilibrium is threatened by severe emotional traumata,
frustrations, or conflicts, the mind resorts to a variety of protective
subterfuges and detours called
mental mechanisms or dynamisms.
Carroll: An adjustment mechanism is a device
resorted to in order to achieve an indirect satisfaction of a need so that
tension will be reduced and self-respect maintained.
McCall: Defence mechanisms may be defined as ‘self
protective manoeuvers’, pertaining to perception and motivation, mental or
psychic, yet largely unconscious, designed to soften or disguise what is
unacceptable in or to the self.
These definitions reveal the following things
regarding nature and characteristics of 'defence mechanisms'.
1. Defence mechanisms are devices in the form of a certain pattern of
behaviour.
2. These mechanisms provide protection against whatever threatens our ego or
self esteem.
12. For organizing its content and process educational
psychology takes support from
(1) Scientific knowledge relating to teaching and
learning.
(2) Philosophical perspective of society.
(3) Sociological problems in schools.
(4) Socio-political contexts of schools.
ANSWER-1
According
to Arthur Coladarci of Stanford University, Educational Psychology is the
empirical foundation of education. It consists of those aspects of education
which can be observed, tested and experimentally verified and as such
Educational Psychology is the scientific foundation of Education. But
effectiveness of Educational Psychology is proved only when its methods and
findings become a part of educational practices, when - the teachers apply
psychological methods and when they develop and experiment attitudes towards
their efforts.
Judd
describes Educational Psychology “as a scientific study of the life stages in
the development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an
adult.”
Charles
E. Skinner states, “Educational Psychology is the branch of psychology which
deals with teaching and learning.” According to Walter B. Kolesnik “
Educational
Psychology is knowledge of the study of those facts and principles of
psychology which helps to explain and improve the process of education.
Educational Psyhology thus is the body of scientific knowledge about two
activities Education
and
Psychology."
13. In Pavlovian conditioning paradigm as developed
originally which of the following was used as independent variable ?
(1) Response magnitude
(2) Response latency
(3) Number of CS-US pairing
(4) Presentation of CS alone
ANSWER-3
There
are two basic approaches to behaviour therapy. Classical conditioning is
learning via the classic Pavlovian response where a conditioned stimulus (CS)
is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), resulting in the development of
a conditioned response (CR).
When
a CR has been established, the client may generalize this learning to a set of
cues (e.g., fear of dogs) or discriminate to the specific cue under any context
(e.g., fear of that dog). Factors that influence classical conditioning are
(a)
the order (CS proceeds US),
(b) time (delay between CS and US),
(c) repetition (number of trials), and
(d) characteristics of the CS and US.
Techniques
based on classical conditioning are generally about “unlearning” maladaptive
CRs through such techniques as systematic desensitization (stepwise
introduction of anxiety-provoking stimulus paired with a relaxation to remove
the CR), flooding (exposing clients to anxiety-provoking stimuli with
opportunity to escape), implosive therapy (imaging a flooding experience), and
aversive therapy (replacing the CR with an unpleasant CR).
14. In Gagne's hierarchy of learning which of the
following learning types will form part of chain learning ?
(1) Concept learning
(2) Problem solving learning
(3) Rule learning
(4) Signal learning
ANSWER-4
Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning In 1956,
the American educational psychologist Robert M. Gagné proposed a system of
classifying different types of learning in terms of the degree of complexity of
the mental processes involved. He identified eight basic types, and arranged
these in the hierarchy shown in Figure. According to Gagné, the higher orders
of learning in this hierarchy build upon the lower levels, requiring
progressively greater amounts of previous learning for their success. The
lowest four orders tend to focus on the more behavioural aspects of learning,
while the highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects.
15. For developing his theory of learning Tolman got
support from
(1) Trial and Error learning experiment
(2) Place learning experiment
(3) Maze learning experiment
(4) S-R learning experiment
ANSWER-2
Tolman's Theory of Sign Learning
According to Tolman (1930) learning is a total
process. It takes pļace by cognition. | Cognition includes concepts like
knowledge, thinking, planning, inference and purpose. The learner through his
experience recognise some cues or signs and then relationships with goals.
Learning consists in the recognition of signs and their meanings in relation to
goals. Tolman argued that the organism follows certain signs and clues to reach
a goal. It learns its ways by following a sort of mental map and it does not
learn only some movements but also their significance and meanings. Hence, this
theory is called sign learning theory.
16. In Hull's system of learning which one is an
intervening variable ?
(1) Number of Reinforced practices
(2) Resistance to extinction
(3) Excitatory Reaction potential
(4) Response Amplitude
ANSWER-3
Reaction
potential (GER) This is the output variable in Hull's system which is directly
correlated with response strength measures such as reaction latency or
amplitude of response. The magnitude of RP (reaction potential) is determined
by a number of variables, but chief among these is habit strength and drive
level (D), more particularly the primary drives like hunger and thirst. These
are intervening variables.
These are tied to the length of deprivation
time. The greater the time of deprivation. greater is the strength of D. Hull
assumes that RP is related to habit strength (HR) and to drive according to
multiplicative functionSER = H, x D. This means lo say that habits
are
displayed in overt behaviour with measurable response strength when they are
activated by drives and the relationship between H, and D is assumed to be
multiplicative.
The
concept of Er, as stated above, i.e. SHR x D is in simple form only so as to
understand the concept in a simple way. In its complete form, it is expressed
as SER = HR x D x V x K
where
SHR=
habit strength
D = drive
V = stimulus intensity, i.e., valency and
K = incentive-motivation.
All
these are intervening variables tied with mathematical functions, respectively
to the drive state, intensity of the stimulus that evokes a reaction and to the
amount of reinforcement that is used.
In Hull's system, V and K are like D in that
they are performance variables which directly influence reaction potential
(GER). We also note from the equation that these variables multiply with HR to
produce the response latency or response amplitude that the experimenter
measures when a stimulus evokes a response on a particular occasion.
17. For enhancing personal effectiveness, which of the
aspects of ‘Johary Window should be expanded ?
(1) Arena with reduced size of B
(2) Arena with reduced size of C
(3) Arena with reduced size of D
(4) Arena with reduced size of B, C and D
ANSWER-4
Speaking
of the importance of group discussions, one can very well relate to the Johari
Window, was developed by the American psychologists Harry Ingham and Joseph
Luft in the 1950s. The model is an important tool to understand self-awareness,
personality development, group dynamics and relationships, co-operation and
interpersonal development.
It gives an insight into the skills,
experience, attitudes within or about a person in a given situation.
18. Who is an arch advocate of trait theory of personality ?
(1) Sheldon
(2) Kretschmer
(3) Jung
(4) Allport
ANSWER-4
Allport's Trait Theory
One of the most exciting versions of trait
theory is provided by Allport wherein he mentions common traits that are used
to compare one personality with other. For such comparison he has identified
six categories of values-social, political, religious, theoretical, economic,
and aesthetic- in his theory.
Besides
these common traits Allport also made use of some unique traits the individuals
possess. He calls these unique traits as personal dispositions. They can be
cardinal (most pervasive), central (unique and limited in number) or secondary
(periphery). Allport thus recognises the complexity of human personality.
19.The term ‘habit family hierarchy' was used to explain
learning situations by whom ?
(1) Pavlov
(2) Tolman
(3) Hull
(4) Skinner
ANSWER-3
Hull
has proposed a concept of Habit Family hierarchy which refers to the fact that
in any learning situation any number of responses are possible and the one that
is most likely is the one that brings about reward most rapidly and with, the
least amount of effort.
20. The concept of functional autonomy of motives was
advanced by
(1) D.C. Mclelland
(2) Frederick Herzberg
(3) Harry F. Harlow
(4) Gordon W. Allport
ANSWER-4
ALLPORT'S
FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY PRINCIPLE : The American psychologist Gordon Willard
Allport (1897–1967) studied, researched, and taught in the area of personality,
which he regarded as the natural subject matter of psychology. In his
exploration and development of personality theory, Allport conceived of
personality as an organized whole (rather than merely a collection of habits)
where one's self can make choices and influence the growth or outcome of its
own personality. Allport formulated the concept of functional autonomy of
motives, which emphasized the emergence of new motivational systems in a
person's life. The principle of functional autonomy describes the case where
wellestablished habits (such as a person's going to work for 12 hours a day for
many years and earning a great deal of money) can become ends or motives in
themselves (such as continuing to go to work for 12 hours a day, even though
the person has become wealthy, could easily retire, and actually does not need
to work at all). According to the principle of functional autonomy of motives,
means to a goal become ends in themselves where the original activities have
now become motives and function independently of the purposes or needs that
they initially served. When it was first introduced, the concept of functional
autonomy was both controversial and radical because it ram counter to the
prevailing theories of motivation, which stressed mechanisms directly linked to
basic physiological needs (Goranson, 1994). Allport's idea raised the
possibility that simple and complex motives can function quite separately from
any direct physiological drive or need. The concept all functional autonomy
liberalized the area of motivation inasmuch as it allowed the individual to be
an active (rather than a passive) entity whose behaviuor could be present-oriented,
as well as future-oriente and not
merely past-oriented.